aPassage 23
At the end of the nineteenth century, a rising interest
in Native American customs and an increasing desire to
understand Native American culture prompted ethnolo-
gists to begin recording the life stories of Native Amer-
(5) ican. Ethnologists had a distinct reason for wanting to
hear the stories: they were after linguistic or anthropo-
logical data that would supplement their own field
observations, and they believed that the personal
stories, even of a single individual, could increase their
(10) understanding of the cultures that they had been
observing from without. In addition many ethnologists
at the turn of the century believed that Native Amer-
ican manners and customs were rapidly disappearing,
and that it was important to preserve for posterity as
(15) much information as could be adequately recorded
before the cultures disappeared forever.
 There were, however, arguments against this method
as a way of acquiring accurate and complete informa-
tion. Franz Boas, for example, described autobiogra-
(20) phies as being “of limited value, and useful chiefly for
the study of the perversion of truth by memory,” while
Paul Radin contended that investigators rarely spent
enough time with the tribes they were observing, and
inevitably derived results too tinged by the investi-
(25) gator’s own emotional tone to be reliable.
Even more importantly, as these life stories moved
from the traditional oral mode to recorded written
form, much was inevitably lost. Editors often decided
what elements were significant to the field research on a
(30) given tribe. Native Americans recognized that the
essence of their lives could not be communicated in
English and that events that they thought significant
were often deemed unimportant by their interviewers.
Indeed, the very act of telling their stories could force
(35) Nat

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aive American narrators to distort their cultures, as
taboos had to be broken to speak the names of dead
relatives crucial to their family stories.
Despite all of this, autobiography remains a useful
tool for ethnological research: such personal reminis-
(40) cences and impressions, incomplete as they may be, are
likely to throw more light on the working of the mind
and emotions than any amount of speculation from an
ethnologist or ethnological theorist from another
culture.

1. Which of the following best describes the organization
 of the passage?
(A) The historical backgrounds of two currently used
research methods are chronicled.
(B) The validity of the data collected by using two
 different research methods is compared.
(C) The usefulness of a research method is questioned
 and then a new method is proposed.
(D) The use of a research method is described and the
limitations of the results obtained are discussed.
(E) A research method is evaluated and the changes
 necessary for its adaptation to other subject areas are
 discussed.

2. Which of the following is most similar to the actions of
nineteenth-century ethnologists in their editing of the
life stories of Native Americans?
(A) A witness in a jury trial invokes the Fifth
 Amendment in order to avoid relating personally
 incriminating evidence.
(B) A stockbroker refuses to divulge the source of her
 information on the possible future increase in a
 stock’s value.
(C) A sports announcer describes the action in a team
 sport with which he is unfamiliar.
(D) A chef purposely excludes the special ingredient
 from the recipe of his prizewinning dessert.
(E) A politician fails to mention in a campaign speech
 the similarities in the positions held by her opponent
 for political office and by herself.

3. Acco

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 arding to the passage, collecting life stories can be a
useful methodology because
(A) life stories provide deeper insights into a culture
 than the hypothesizing of academics who are not
 members of that culture
(B) life stories can be collected easily and they are not
 subject to invalid interpretations
(C) ethnologists have a limited number of research
 methods from which to choose
(D) life stories make it easy to distinguish between the
 important and unimportant features of a culture
(E) the collection of life stories does not require a
 culturally knowledgeable investigator

4. Information in the passage suggests that which of
the following may be a possible

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way to eliminate
bias in the editing of life stories?
(A) Basing all inferences made about the culture
 on an ethnological theory
(B) Eliminating all of the emotion-laden information
 reported by the informant
(C) Translating the informant’s words into the
 researcher’s language
(D) Reducing the number of questions and carefully
 specifying the content of the questions that the
 investigator can ask the informant
(E) Reporting all of the information that the informant
 provides regardless of the investigator’s personal
 opinion about its intrinsic value

5. The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to
(A) question an explanation
(B) correct a misconception
(C) critique a methodology
(D) discredit an idea
(E) clarify an ambiguity

6. It can be inferred from the passage that a characteristic
of the ethnological research on Native Americans
conducted during the nineteenth century was the use
of which of the following?
(A) Investigators familiar with the culture under study
(B) A language other than the informant’s for recording
 life stories
(C) Life stories as the ethnologist’s pri

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 amary source of
 information
(D) Complete transcriptions of informants’ descriptions
of tribal beliefs
(E) Stringent guidelines for the preservation of cultural
 data

7. The passage mentions which of the following as a factor
 that can affect the accuracy of ethnologists’
 transcriptions of life stories?
(A) The informants’ social standing within the culture
(B) The inclusiveness of the theory that provided the
 basis for the research
(C) The length of time the researchers spent in the
 culture under study
(D) The number of life stories collected by the
researchers
(E) The verifiability of the information provided by the
 research informants

8. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would
be most likely to agree with which of the following
statements about the usefulness of life stories as a source
of ethnographic information?
(A) They can be a source of information about how
people in a culture view the world.
(B) They are most useful as a source of linguistic
information.
(C) They require editing and interpretation before they
 can be useful.
(D) They are most useful as a source of information
 about ancestry.
(E) They provide incidental information rather than
 significant insights into a way of life.


Passage 24
 All of the cells in a particular plant start out with the
same complement of genes. How then can these cells
differentiate and form structures as different as roots,
stems, leaves, and fruits? The answer is that only a
(5) small subset of the genes in a particular kind of cell are
expressed, or turned on, at a given time. This is accom-
plished by a complex system of chemical messengers
that in plants include hormones and other regulatory
molecules. Five major hormones have been identified:
(10) auxin, abscisi

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ac acid, cytokinin, ethylene, and gibberel-
lin. Studies of plants have now identified a new class of
regulatory molecules called oligosaccharins.
Unlike the oligosaccharins, the five well-known plant
hormones are pleiotropic rather than specific, that is,
(15) each has more than one effect on the growth and devel-
opment of plants. The five has so many simultaneous
effects that they are not very useful in artificially
controlling the growth of crops. Auxin, for instance,
stimulates the rate of cell elongation, causes shoots to
(20) grow up and roots to grow down, and inhibits the
growth of lateral shoots. Auxin also causes the plant to
develop a vascular system, to form lateral roots, and to
produce ethylene.
 The pleiotropy of the five well-studied plant
(25) hormones is somewhat analogous to that of certain
 hormones in animal. For example, hormones from the
hypothalamus in the brain stimulate the anterior lobe
of the pituitary gland to synthesize and release many
different hormones, one of which stimulates the release
(30) of hormones from the adrenal cortex. These hormones
 have specific effects on target organs all over the body.
One hormone stimulates the thyroid gland, for
example, another the ovarian follicle cells, and so forth.
In other words, there is a hierarchy of hormones.
(35)Such a hierarchy may also exist in plants. Oligosac-
charins are fragments o

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f the cell wall released by
enzymes: different enzymes release different oligosac-
 charins. There are indications that pleiotropic plant
 hormones may actually function by activating the
(40) enzymes that release these other, more specific chemical
 messengers from the cell wall.

1. According to the passage, the five well-known plant
hormones are not useful in controlling the growth of
 crops because
(A) it is not known exactly what functions the hor

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 amones
 perform
(B) each hormone has various effects on plants
(C) none of the hormones can function without the
 others
(D) each hormone has different effects on different kinds
 of plants
(E) each hormone works on only a small subset of a
 cell’s genes at any particular time

2. The passage suggests that the place of hypothalamic
hormones in the hormonal hierarchies of animals is
similar to the place of which of the following in plants?
(A) Plant cell walls
(B) The complement of genes in each plant cell
(C) A subset of a plant cell’s gene complement
(D) The five major hormones
(E) The oligosaccharins

3. The passage suggests that which of the following is a
 function likely to be performed by an oligosaccharin?
(A) To stimulate a particular plant cell to become part of
 a plant’s root system
(B) To stimulate the walls of a particular cell to produce
 other oligosaccharins
(C) To activate enzymes that release specific chemical
 messengers from plant cell walls
(D) To duplicate the gene complement in a particular
 plant cell
(E) To produce multiple effects on a particular
 subsystem of plant cells

4. The author mentions specific effects that auxin has on
plant development in order to illustrate the
(A) point that some of the effects of plant hormones can
 be harmful
(B) way in which hormones are produced by plants
(C) hierarchical nature of the functioning of plant
 hormones
(D) differences among the best-known plant hormones
(E) concept of pleiotropy as it is exhibited by plant
 hormones

5. According to the passage, which of the following best
describes a function performed by oligosaccharins?
(A) Regulating the daily functioning of a plant’s cells
(B) Interacting with one another to produce different
 chemicals
(C) Releasing s

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 apecific chemical messengers from a
 plant’s cell walls
(D) Producing the hormones that cause plant cells to
 differentiate to perform different functions
(E) Influencing the development of a plant’s cells by
 controlling the expression of the cells’ genes

6. The passage suggests that, unlike the pleiotropic
hormones, oligosaccharins could be used effectively
to
(A) trace the passage of chemicals through the walls of
 cells
(B) pinpoint functions of other plant hormones
(C) artificially control specific aspects of the
 development of crops
(D) alter the complement of genes in the cells of plants
(E) alter the effects of the five major hormones on
 plant development

7. The author discusses animal hormones primarily in
order to
(A) introduce the idea of a hierarchy of hormones
(B) explain the effects that auxin has on plant cells
(C) contrast the functioning of plant hormones and
 animals hormones
(D) illustrate the way in which particular hormones
 affect animals
(E) explain the distinction between hormones and
 regulatory molecules


Passage 25
 In 1977 the prestigious Ewha Women’s University in
Seoul, Korea, announced the opening of the first
women’s studies program in Asia. Few academic
programs have ever received such public attention. In
(5) broadcast debates, critics dismissed the program as a
betrayal of national identity, an imitation of Western
ideas, and a distraction from the real task of national
unification and economic development. Even supporters
underestimated the program ; they thought it would be
(10) merely another of the many Western ideas that had
already proved useful in Asian culture, akin to airlines,
electricity, and the assembly line. The founders of the
program, however, realized that neither view was
correct. They had some reservat

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aions about the appli-
(15) cability of Western feminist theories to the role of
women in Asia and felt that such

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theories should be
closely examined. Their approach has thus far yielded
important critiques of Western theory, informed by the
special experience of Asian women.
(20) For instance, like the Western feminist critique of the
Freudian model of the human psyche, the Korean critique finds Freudian theory culture-bound, but in
ways different from those cited by Western theorists.
The Korean theorists claim that Freudian theory
(25) assumes the universality of the Western nuclear, male-
headed family and focuses on the personality formation
of the individual, independent of society, An analysis
based on such assumptions could be valid for a highly
competitive, individualistic society. In the Freudian
(30) family drama, family members are assumed to be
engaged in a Darwinian struggle against each other-
father against son and sibling against sibling. Such a
concept of projects the competitive model of Western
society onto human personalities. But in the Asian
(35) concept of personality there is no ideal attached to indi
vidualism or to the independent self. The Western model
of personality development does not explain major char-
acteristics of the Korean personality, which is social and
group-centered. The “self” is a social being defined by
(40) and acting in a group, and the well-being of both men
and women is determined by the equilibrium of the
group, not by individual self-assertion. The ideal is one
of interdependency.
In such a context, what is recognized as “depen-
(45) dency” in Western psychiatric terms is not, in Korean
terms, an admission of weakness or failure. All this bears
directly on the Asian perception of men’s and women’s
psychology because men are also “ dependent”, In
Korean culture, men cry and otherw

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aise easily show their
(50) emotions, something that might be considered a betrayal
of masculinity in Western culture. In the kinship-based
society of Korea, four generations may live in the same
house, which means that people can be sons and daugh-
ters all their lives, whereas in Western culture, the roles
of husband and son, wife and daughter, are often incom-
patible.

1. Which of the following best summarizes the content of
the passage?
(A) A critique of a particular women’s studies program
(B) A report of work in social theory done by a
 particular women’s studies program
(C) An assessment of the strengths and weaknesses
 of a particular women’s studies program
(D) An analysis of the philosophy underlying
 women’s studies programs
(E) An abbreviated history of Korean women’s
 studies programs

2. It can be inferred from the passage that Korean
scholars in the field of women’s studies undertook
an analysis of Freudian theory as a response to
which of the following?
(A) Attacks by critics of the Ewha women’s studies
 program
(B) The superficiality of earlier critiques of Freudian
 theory
(C) The popularity of Freud in Korean psychiatric
 circles
(D) Their desire to encourage Korean scholars to
 adopt the Freudian model
(E) Their assessment of the relevance and limitations of
 Western feminist theory with respect to Korean
 culture

3. Which of the following conclusions about the
introduction of Western ideas to Korean society can be
supported by information contained in the passage?
(A) Except for technological innovations, few Western
ideas have been successfully transplanted into
Korean society.
(B) The introduction of Western ideas to Korean society
is viewed by some Koreans as a challenge to
 Korean identity.
(C) The development o

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 af the Korean economy depends
heavily on the development of new academic
programs modeled after Western programs.
(D) The extent to which Western ideas must be adapted
for acceptance by Korean society is minimal.
(E) The introduction of Western ideas to Korean society
 accelerated after 1977.

4. It can be inferred from the passage that the broadcast
media in Korea considered the establishment of the
Ewha women’s studies program
(A) praiseworthy
(B) insignificant
(C) newsworthy
(D) imitative
(E) incomprehensible

5. It can be inferred from the passage that the position
taken by some of the supporters of the Ewha women’s
studies program was problematic to the founders of the
program because those supporters
(A) assumed that the program would be based on

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the
uncritical adoption of Western theory
(B) failed to show concern for the issues of national
unification and economic development
(C) were unfamiliar with Western feminist theory
(D) were not themselves scholars in the field of
 women’s studies
(E) accepted the universality of Freudian theory

6. Which of the following statements is most consistent
 with the view of personality development held by the
 Ewha women’s studies group?
(A) Personality development occurs in identifiable
 stages, beginning with dependency in childhood
 and ending with independence in adulthood.
(B) Any theory of personality development, in order
 to be valid, must be universal.
(C) Personality development is influenced by the
 characteristics of the society in which a person
 lives.
(D) Personality development is hindered if a person
 is not permitted to be independent.
(E) No theory of personality development can account
 for the differences between Korean and Western
 culture.

7. Which of the follow

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aing statements about the Western
 feminist critique of Freudian theory can be supported
 by information contained in the passage?
(A) It recognizes the influence of Western culture on
 Freudian theory.
(B) It was written after 1977.
(C) It acknowledges the universality of the nuclear,
male-headed family.
(D) It challenges Freud’s analysis of the role of
 daughters in Western society.
(E) It fails to address the issue of competitiveness in
 Western society.

8. According to the passage, critics of the Ewha women’s
studies program cited the program as a threat to which
of the following?
Ⅰ. National identity
Ⅱ. National unification
Ⅲ. Economic development
Ⅳ.Family integrity
(A) Ⅰ only
(B) Ⅰ and Ⅱ only
(C) Ⅰ,Ⅱ,and Ⅲ only
(D) Ⅱ, Ⅲ, and Ⅳ only
(E) Ⅰ,Ⅱ,Ⅲ, and Ⅳ


Passage 26
In choosing a method for determining climatic condi-
tions that existed in the past, paleoclimatologists invoke
four principal criteria. First, the material---rocks, lakes,
vegetation, etc-on which the method relies must be
(5) widespread enough to provide plenty of information,
since analysis of material that is rarely encountered will
not permit correlation with other regions or with other
periods of geological history. Second, in the process of
formation, the material must have received an environ-
(10) mental signal that reflects a change in climate and that
can be deciphered by modern physical or chemical
means. Third, at least some of the material must have
retained the signal unaffected by subsequent changes in
the environment. Fourth, it must be possible to deter-
(15) mine the time at which the inferred climatic conditions
held. This last criterion is more easily met in dating
marine sediments, because dating of only a small
number of layers in a marine sequence allows the age of
other laye

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ars to be estimated fairly reliably by extrapola-
(20) tion and interpolation. By contrast, because sedimenta-
tion is much less continuous in continental regions, esti-
mating the age of a continental bed from the known
ages of beds above and below is more risky.
One very old method used in the investigation of past
(25) climatic conditions involves the measurement of water
levels in ancient lakes. In temperate regions, there are
enough lakes for correlations between them to give us a
reliable picture. In arid and semiarid regions, on the
other hand, the small number of lakes and the great
(30) distances between them reduce the possibilities for corre-
lation. Moreover, since lake levels are controlled by rates
of evaporation as well as by precipitation, the interpreta-
tion of such levels is ambiguous. For instance, the fact
that lake levels in the semiarid southwestern United
(35) States appear to have been higher during the last ice age
than they are now was at one time attributed to
increased precipitation. On the basis of snow-line eleva-
tions, however, it has been concluded that the climate
then was not necessarily wetter than it is now, but rather
(40) that both summers and winters were cooler, resulting in
 reduced evaporation.
 Another problematic method is to reconstruct former
climates on the basis of pollen profiles. The type of vege-
tation in a specific region is determined by identifying
(45) and counting the various pollen grains found there.
Although the relatio

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nship between vegetation and
climate is not as direct as the relationship between
climate and lake levels, the method often works well in
the temperate zones. In arid and semiarid regions in
(50) which there is not much vegetation, however, small
changes in one or a few plant types can change the
picture dramatically, making accurate correlations
 betwe

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aen neighboring areas difficult to obtain.

1. Which of the following statements about the
difference between marine and continental
sedimentation is supported by information in the
passage?
(A) Data provided by dating marine sedimentation is
 more consistent with researchers’ findings in
 other disciplines than is data provided by dating
 continental sedimentation.
(B) It is easier to estimate the age of a layer in a
 sequence of continental sedimentation than it
 is to estimate the age of a layer in a sequence
 of marine sedimentation.
(C) Marine sedimentation is much less widespread
 than continental sedimentation.
(D) Researchers are more often forced to rely on
 extrapolation when dating a layer of marine
 sedimentation than when dating a layer of
 continental sedimentation.
(E) Marine sedimentation is much more continuous
 than is continental sedimentation.

2. Which of the following statements best describes the
 organization of the passage as a whole?
(A) The author describes a method for determining past
 climatic conditions and then offers specific
 examples of situations in which it has been used.
(B) The author discusses the method of dating marine
 and continental sequences and then explains how
 dating is more difficult with lake levels than with
 pollen profiles.
(C) The author describes the common requirements of
methods for determining past climatic conditions
and then discusses examples of such methods.
(D) The author describes various ways of choosing a
material for determining past climatic conditions
and then discusses how two such methods have
yielded contradictory data.
(E) The author describes how methods for determining
past climatic conditions were first developed and
then describes two of the earliest known methods. <

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aBR>
3. It can be inferred from the passage that
paleoclimatologists have concluded which of the
following on the basis of their study of snow-line
elevations in the southwestern United States?
(A) There is usually more precipitation during an ice age
because of increased amounts of evaporation.
(B) There was less precipitation during the last ice age
 than there is today.
(C) Lake levels in the semiarid southwestern United
 States were lower during the last ice age than they
 are today.
(D) During the last ice age, cooler weather led to lower
 lake levels than paleoclimatologists had previously
 assumed.
(E) The high lake levels during the last ice age may have
 been a result of less evaporation rather than more
 precipitation.

4. Which of the following would be the most likely topic
 for a paragraph that logically continues the passage?
(A) The kinds of plants normally found in arid regions
(B) The effect of variation in lake levels on pollen
 distribution
(C) The material best suited to preserving signals of
 climatic changes
(D) Other criteria invoked by paleoclimatologists when
 choosing a method to determine past climatic
 conditions
(E) A third method for investigating past climatic
 conditions

5. The author discusses lake levels in the southwestern
United States in order to
(A) illustrate the mechanics of the relationship between
 lake level, evaporation, and precipitation
(B) provide an example of the uncertainty involved in
 interpreting lake levels
(C) prove that there are not enough ancient lakes with
 which to make accurate correlations
(D) explain the effects of increased rates of evaporation
 on levels of precipitation
(E) suggest that snow-line elevations are invariably
 more accurate than lake levels in determining rates


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 a of precipitation at various points in the past

6. It can be inferred from the passage that an
environmental signal found in geological material
would not be useful to paleoc

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limatologists if it
(A) had to be interpreted by modern chemical means
(B) reflected a change in climate rather than a long-
 term climatic condition
(C) was incorporated into a material as the material was
 forming
(D) also reflected subsequent environmental changes
(E) was contained in a continental rather than a marine
 sequence

7. According to the passage, the material used to determine
past climatic conditions must be widespread for which
 of the following reasons?
Ⅰ.Paleoclimatologists need to make comparisons
 between periods of geological history.
Ⅱ. Paleoclimatologists need to compare materials that
 have supported a wide variety of vegetation.
Ⅲ. Paleoclimatologists need to make comparisons with
 data collected in other regions.
(A) Ⅰ only
(B) Ⅱ only
(C) Ⅰ and Ⅱ only
(D) Ⅰ and Ⅲ only
(E) Ⅱ and Ⅲ only

8. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage
about the study of past climates in arid and semiarid
regions?
(A) It is sometimes more difficult to determine past
climatic conditions in arid and semiarid regions than
in temperate regions.
(B) Although in the past more research has been done on
 temperate regions, paleoclimatologists have
 recently turned their attention to arid and semiarid
 regions.
(C) Although more information about past climates can
 be gathered in arid and semiarid than in temperate
 regions, dating this information is more difficult.
(D) It is difficult to study the climatic history of arid and
 semiarid regions because their climates have tended
 to vary more than those of temperate regions.
(E) The study of past climates in

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aarid and semiarid
 regions has been neglected because temperate
 regions support a greater variety of plant and animal
 life.


Passage 27
Since the late 1970’s, in the face of a severe loss of
market share in dozens of industries, manufacturers in
the United States have been trying to improve produc-
tivity-and therefore enhance their international
(5) competitiveness-through cost-cutting programs. (Cost-
cutting here is defined as raising labor output while
holding the amount of labor constant.) However, from
1978 through 1982, productivity-the value of goods
manufactured divided by the amount of labor input-
(10) did not improve; and while the results were better in the
business upturn of the three years following, they ran 25
percent lower than productivity improvements during
earlier, post-1945 upturns. At the same time, it became clear that the harder manufactures worked to imple-
(15) ment cost-cutting, the more they lost their competitive
edge.
 With this paradox in mind, I recently visited 25
companies; it became clear to me that the cost-cutting
approach to increasing productivity is fundamentally
(20) flawed. Manufacturing regularly observes a “40, 40, 20”
rule. Roughly 40 percent of any manufacturing-based
competitive advantage derives from long-term changes
in manufacturing structure (decisions about the number,
 size, location, and capacity of facilities) and in approaches
(25) to materials. Another 40 percent comes from major
changes in equipment and process technology. The final
20 percent rests on implementing conventional cost-
cutting. This rule does not imply that cost-cutting should
not be tried. The well-known tools of this approach-
(30) including simplifying jobs and retraining employees to
work smarter, not harder-do produce results. But the
tools quickly reach the limits of what they ca

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 an
contribute.
 Another problem is that the cost-cutting approach
(35) hinders innovation and discourages creative people. As
Abernathy’s study of automobile manufacturers has
shown, an industry can easily become prisoner of its
own investments in cost-cutting techniques, reducing its
ability to develop new products. And managers under
(40) pressure to maximize cost-cutting will resist innovation
because they know that more fundamental changes in
processes or systems will wreak havoc with the results on
which they are measured. Production managers have
always seen their job as one of minimizing costs and
(45) maximizing output. This dimension of performance has
until recently sufficed as a basis of evaluation, but it has
created a penny-pinching, mechanistic culture in most
factories that has kept away creative managers.
Every company I know that has freed its

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elf from the
(50) paradox has done so, in part, by developing and imple-
menting a manufacturing strategy. Such a strategy
focuses on the manufacturing structure and on equip-
ment and process technology. In one company a manu-
facturing strategy that allowed different areas of the
(55) factory to specialize in different markets replaced the
conventional cost-cutting approach; within three years
the company regained its competitive advantage.
Together with such strategies, successful companies are
also encouraging managers to focus on a wider set of
objectives besides cutting costs. There is hope for manufacturing, but it clearly rests on a different way of
managing.

1.The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) summarizing a thesis
(B) recommending a different approach
(C) comparing points of view
(D) making a series of predictions
(E) describing a number of paradoxes

2. It can be inferred from the passage that the manufacturrs
mentione

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ad in line 2 expected that the measures they
implemented would
(A) encourage innovation
(B) keep labor output constant
(C) increase their competitive advantage
(D) permit business upturns to be more easily predicted
(E) cause managers to focus on a wider set of objectives

3. The primary function of the first paragraph of the
 passage is to
(A) outline in brief the author’s argument
(B) anticipate challenges to the prescriptions that follow
(C) clarify some disputed definitions of economic terms
(D) summarize a number of long-accepted explanations
(E) present a historical context for the author’s
 observations

4. The author refers to Abernathy’s study (line 36) most
 probably in order to
(A) qualify an observation about one rule governing
manufacturing
(B) address possible objections to a recommendation
about improving manufacturing competitiveness
(C) support an earlier assertion about one method of
increasing productivity
(D) suggest the centrality in the United States economy
 of a particular manufacturing industry
(E) given an example of research that has questioned the
 wisdom of revising a manufacturing strategy

5. The author’s attitude toward the culture in most factories
is best described as
(A) cautious
(B) critical
(C) disinterested
(D) respectful
(E) adulatory

6. In the passage, the author includes all of the following
EXCEPT
(A) personal observation
(B) a business principle
(C) a definition of productivity
(D) an example of a successful company
(E) an illustration of a process technology

7. The author suggests that implementing conventional
cost-cutting as a way of increasing manufacturing
competitiveness is a strategy that is
(A) flawed and ruinous
(B) shortsighted and difficult to sustain
(C) popular an

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 ad easily accomplished
(D) useful but inadequate
(E) misunderstood but promising


















Passage 28

The settlement of the United States has occupied
traditional historians since 1893 when Frederick Jackson
Turner developed his Frontier Thesis, a thesis that
explained American development in terms of westward
(5) expansion. From the perspective of women’s history,
Turner’s exclusively masculine assumptions constitute a
major drawback: his defenders and critics alike have
reconstructed men’s, not women’s, lives on the frontier.
However, precisely because of this masculine orientation,
(10)revising the Frontier Thesis by focusing on women’s
experience introduces new themes into women’s
history-woman as lawmaker and entrepreneur-and,
consequently, new interpretations of women’s relation-
ship to capital, labor, and statute.
(15)Turner claimed that the frontier produced the indivi-
dualism that is the hallmark of American culture, and
that this individualism in turn promoted democratic
institutions and economic equality. He argued for the
frontier as an agent of social change. Most novelists and
(20) historians writing in the early to midtwentieth century
who considered women in the West, when they consid-
ered women at all, fell under Turner’s spell. In their
works these authors tended to glorify women’s contribu-
tions to frontier life. Western women, in Turnerian tradi-
(25) tion, were a fiercely independent, capable, and durable
lot, free from the constraints b

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inding their eastern sisters.
This interpretation implied that the West provided a
congenial environment where women could aspire to
their own goals, free from constrictive stereotypes and
(30) sexist attitudes. In Turnerian terminology, the frontier
had furnished “a gate of escape from

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 a the bondage of the
past.”
By the middle of the twentieth century, the Frontier
 Thesis fell into disfavor among historians. Later, Reac-
(35) tionist writers took the view that frontier women were
 lonely, displaced persons in a hostile milieu that intensi-
 fied the worst aspects of gender relations. The renais-
 sance of the feminist movement during the 1970’s led to
 the Stasist school, which sidestepped the good bad
(40) dichotomy and argued that frontier women lived lives
similar to the live of women in the East. In one now-
standard text, Faragher demonstrated the persistence of
the “cult of true womanhood” and the illusionary qual-
ity of change on the westward journey. Recently the
(45) Stasist position has been revised but not entirely
 discounted by new research.

1. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) provide a framework within which the history of
women in nineteenth-century America can be
organized.
(B) discuss divergent interpretations of women’s
 experience on the western frontier
(C) introduce a new hypothesis about women’s
 experience in nineteenth-century America
(D) advocate an empirical approach to women’s
 experience on the western frontier
(E) resolve ambiguities in several theories about
 women’s experience on the western frontier

2. Which of the following can be inferred about the
 novelists and historians mentioned in lines 19-20?
(A) They misunderstood the powerful influence of
constrictive stereotypes on women in the East.
(B) They assumed that the frontier had offered more
 opportunities to women than had the East.
(C) They included accurate information about women’s
 experiences on the frontier.
(D) They underestimated the endurance and fortitude of
frontier women.
(E) They agreed with some of Turner’s assumptions
about front

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aier women, but disagreed with other
assumptions that he made.

3. Which of the following, if true, would provide
additional evidence for the Stasists’ argument as it is
described in the passage?
(A) Frontier women relied on smaller support groups of
 relatives and friends in the West than they had in the
 East.
(B) The urban frontier in the West offered more
 occupational opportunity than the agricultural
 frontier offered.
(C) Women participated more fully in the economic
 decisions of the family group in the West than they
 had in the East.
(D) Western women received financial compensation for
 labor that was comparable to what women received
 in the East.
(E) Western women did not have an effect on divorce
 laws, but lawmakers in the West were more
responsive to women’s concerns than lawmakers in
the East were.

4. According to the passage, Turner makes which of the
following connections in his Frontier Thesis?
Ⅰ. A connection between American individualism and
economic equality
Ⅱ. A connection between geographical expansion and
social change
Ⅲ. A connection between social change and financial
prosperity
(A) I only
(B)Ⅱonly
(C) Ⅲ only
(D) Ⅰand Ⅱ only
(E) Ⅰ,Ⅱ and Ⅲ

5. It can be inferred that which of the following statements
is consistent with the Reactionist position as it is
described in the passage?
(A) Continuity, not change, marked women’s lives as
 they moved from East to West.
(B) Women’s experience on the North American frontier
has not received enough attention from modern
historians.
(C) Despite its rigors, the frontier offered women
 opportunities that had not been available in the East.
(D) Gender relations were more difficult for women in
 the West than they were in the East.
(E) Women on the North American fronti

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 aer adopted new
 roles while at the same time reaffirming traditional
 roles.

6. Which of the following best describes the organization
of the passage?
(A) A current interpretation of a phenomenon is
 described and then ways in which it was developed
 are discussed.


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(B) Three theories are presented and then a new
 hypothesis that discounts those theories is described.
(C) An important theory and its effects are discussed and
 then ways in which it has been revised are described.
(D) A controversial theory is discussed and then
 viewpoints both for and against it are described.
(E) A phenomenon is described and then theories
 concerning its correctness are discussed.

7. Which of the following is true of the Stasist school as it
is described in the passage?
(A) It provides new interpretations of women’s
 relationship to work and the law.
(B) It resolves some of the ambiguities inherent in
 Turnerian and Reactionist thought.
(C) It has recently been discounted by new research
 gathered on women’s experience.
(D) It avoids extreme positions taken by other writers on
 women’s history.
(E) It was the first school of thought to suggest
 substantial revisions to the Frontier Thesis.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

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